Abstract
By presenting and synthesizing findings on the character of boredom, the article advances a theoretical account of the function of the state of boredom. The article argues that the state of boredom should be understood as a functional emotion that is both informative and regulatory of one's behavior. Boredom informs one of the presence of an unsatisfactory situation and, at the same time, it motivates one to pursue a new goal when the current goal ceases to be satisfactory, attractive or meaningful. Boredom ultimately promotes both movement and the restoration of the perception that one's activities are meaningful and congruent with one's overall projects.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Acee, T. W., Kim, H., Kim, H. J., Kim, J., Hsiang-Ning, R. C., Kim, M., Cho, Y., & Wicker, F. W. (2010). Academic boredom in under-and over-challenging situations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35(1), 17–27.
Ahmed, S. M. S. (1990). Psychometric properties of the boredom proneness scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 963–966.
Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt.
Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Anderson, N. H. (1965). Averaging versus adding as a stimulus-combination rule in impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 1–9.
Anderson, J. S. (2007). Pleasant, pleasurable, and positive activities. In L. L’Abate (Ed.), Low-cost approaches to promote physical and mental health. New York: Springer.
Angrilli, A., Cherubini, P., Pavese, A., & Manfredini, S. (1997). The influence of affective factors on time perception. Perception & Psychophysics, 59, 972–982.
Avni-Babad, D., & Ritov, I. (2003). Routine and the perception of time. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 132, 543–555.
Banse, R., & Scherer, K. R. (1996). Acoustic profiles in vocal emotion expression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 614–636.
Barbalet, J. M. (1999). Boredom and social meaning. The British Journal of Sociology, 50(4), 631–646.
Barmack, J. E. (1937). Boredom and other factors in the physiology of mental effort: An exploratory study. Archives of Psychology, 31, 9–10.
Barwick, F., Arnett, P., & Slobounov, S. (2012). EEG correlates of fatigue during administration of a neuropsychological test battery. Clinical Neurophysiology, 123(2), 278–284.
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1252–1265.
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323.
Belton, T., & Priyadharshini, E. (2007). Boredom and schooling: A cross-disciplinary exploration. Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(4), 579–595.
Bench, S. W., & Lench, H. C. (2013). On the function of boredom. Behavioral Sciences, 3(3), 459–472.
Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Berlyne, D. E. (1967). Arousal and reinforcement. In A. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln.
Bernstein, H. E. (1975). Boredom and the ready-made life. Social Research, 42, 512–537.
Binnema, D. (2004). Interrelations of psychiatric patient experiences of boredom and mental health. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 25, 833–842.
Blaszczynski, A., McConaghy, N., & Frankova, A. (1990). Boredom proneness in pathological gambling. Psychological Reports, 67(1), 35–42.
Block, R. A., & Reed, M. A. (1978). Remembered duration: Evidence for a contextual-change hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4(6), 656–665.
Block, R. A., & Zakay, D. (1997). Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: A meta-analytic review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 4(2), 184–197.
Braby, C. D., Harris, D., & Muir, H. C. (1993). A psychophysiological approach to the assessment of work underload. Ergonomics, 36(9), 1035–1042.
Bull, P. E. (1987). Posture and Gesture (International series in experimental social psychology, volume 16). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Chabot, R. J., & Serfontein, G. (1996). Quantitative electroencephalographic profiles of children with attention deficit disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 40(10), 951–963.
Chanel, G., Rebetez, C., Bétrancourt, M., & Pun, T. (2008, October). Boredom, engagement and anxiety as indicators for adaptation to difficulty in games. Proceedings of MindTrek ‘08, pp. 13-17. Tampere, Finland. doi:10.1145/1457199.1457203.
Chaplin, W. F., John, O. P., & Goldberg, L. R. (1988). Conceptions of states and traits: Dimensional attributes with ideals as prototypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(4), 541–557.
Charlton, J., & Hertz, R. (1989). Guarding against boredom. Security specialists in the US Air Force. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 18, 299–326.
Chin, A., Markey, A., Bhargava, S., Kassam, K. S., & Loewenstein, G. (2017). Bored in the USA: Experience sampling and boredom in everyday life. Emotion, 17(2), 359–368. doi:10.1037/emo0000232.
Church, R. M. (1984). Properties of the internal clock. In J. Gibbon & L. Allan (Eds.), Timing and time perception (Vol. 423, pp. 566–582). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Clarke, A. R., Barry, R. J., McCarthy, R., & Selikowitz, M. (1998). EEG analysis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparative study of two subtypes. Psychiatry Research, 81(1), 19–29.
Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N., & Conway, M. (1994). Affective causes and consequences of social information processing. In R. Wyer & T. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed., pp. 3 2 3–417). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., & Conway, A. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion, 9(3), 361.
Cordes, S., Williams, C. L., & Meck, W. H. (2007). Common representations of abstract quantities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 156–161.
Costa, P. T, McCrae, R. R., & Arenberg, D. (1980). Enduring dispositions in adult males. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 793–800.
Craig, S. D., D'Mello, S., Witherspoon, A., & Graesser, A. (2008). Emote aloud during learning with AutoTutor: Applying the facial action coding system to cognitive–affective states during learning. Cognition and Emotion, 22(5), 777–788.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1993). The evolving self: A psychology for the third millennium. New York: Harper Collins.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. S. (1988). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cummings, M. L., Gao, F., & Thornburg, K. M. (2016). Boredom in the workplace a new look at an old problem. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 58(2), 279–300.
Dahlen, E. R., Martin, R. C., Ragan, K., & Kuhlman, M. M. (2005). Driving anger, sensation seeking, impulsiveness, and boredom proneness in the prediction of unsafe driving. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 37(2), 341–348.
Damrad-Frye, R., & Laird, J. D. (1989). The experience of boredom: The role of the self-perception of attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 315–320.
Danckert, J. (2013). Descent of the doldrums. Scientific American Mind, 24(3), 54–59.
Danckert, J. A., & Allman, A. A. A. (2005). Time flies when you’re having fun: Temporal estimation and the experience of boredom. Brain and Cognition, 59(3), 236–245.
Danckert, J., & Merrifield, C. (2016). Boredom, sustained attention and the default mode network. Experimental Brain Research, 1–12.
Daniels, L. M., Tze, V. M., & Goetz, T. (2015). Examining boredom: Different causes for different coping profiles. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 255–261.
Daschmann, E. C., Goetz, T., & Stupnisky, R. H. (2011). Testing the predictors of boredom at school: Development and validation of the precursors to boredom scales. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 421–440.
De Chenne, T. K. (1988). Boredom as a clinical issue. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 25, 71–81.
De Chenne, T. K., & Moody, A. J. (1988). Boredom: Theory and therapy. The Psychotherapy Patient, 3(3–4), 17–29.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Drory, A. (1982). Boredom proneness---the development and correlates of a new scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, 4–17.
Eastwood, J. D., Cavaliere, C., Fahlman, S. A., & Eastwood, A. E. (2007). A desire for desires: Boredom and its relation to alexithymia. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(6), 1035–1045.
Eastwood, J. D., Frischen, A., Fenske, M. J., & Smilek, D. (2012). The unengaged mind defining boredom in terms of attention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482–495.
Ekman, P. (1984). Expression and the nature of emotion. In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 319–343). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1978). Facial action coding system: Investigator’s guide. Palo Altom: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Elpidorou, A. (2014). The bright side of boredom. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1245.
Elpidorou, A. (2015). The quiet alarm. Aeon Magazine. https://aeon.co/essays/life-without-boredom-would-be-a-nightmare.
Elpidorou, A. (2016). The significance of boredom: A Sartrean reading. In. D. Dahlstrom, A. Elpidorou, & W. Hopp, Philosophy of mind and phenomenology: Conceptual and empirical approaches (pp. 268–283). New York: Routledge.
Elpidorou, A. (2017). The moral dimensions of boredom: A call for research. Review of General Psychology, 21(1), 30–48.
Elpidorou, A. (in press). The good of boredom. Philosophical Psychology.
Epstein, S. (1979). The stability of behavior: I. On predicting most of the people most of the time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1097–1126.
Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield: Thomas.
Fahlman, S. A., Mercer, K. B., Gaskovski, P., Eastwood, A. E., & Eastwood, J. D. (2009). Does a lack of life meaning cause boredom? Results from psychometric, longitudinal, and experimental analyses. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(3), 307–340.
Fahlman, S. A., Mercer-Lynn, K. B., Flora, D. B., & Eastwood, J. D. (2013). Development and validation of the multidimensional state boredom scale. Assessment, 20, 68–85.
Fan, X., Zhou, Q., Liu, Z., & Xie, F. (2015). Electroencephalogram assessment of mental fatigue in visual search. Bio-medical Materials and Engineering, 26(s1), 1455–1463.
Farmer, R., & Sundberg, N. D. (1986). Boredom proneness--the development and correlates of a new scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50(1), 4–17.
Fenichel, O. (1951). On the psychology of boredom. In D. Rapaport (Ed.), Organization and pathology of thought: Selected sources (pp. 349–361). New York: Columbia University Press.
Fisher, C. D. (1993). Boredom at work: A neglected concept. Human Relations, 46, 395–417.
Fiske, D. W. (1961). Effects of monotonous and restricted stimulation. In D. W. Fiske & S. R. Maddi (Eds.), Functions of varied experience (pp. 106–145). Homewood: Dorsey Press.
Fiske, D. W., & Maddi, S. R. (1961). Functions of varied experience. Homewood: Dorsey Press.
Flaherty, M. G., Freidin, B., & Sautu, R. (2005). Variation in the perceived passage of time: A cross-national study. Social Psychology Quarterly, 68, 400–410.
Fleeson, W., Malanos, A. B., & Achille, N. M. (2002). An intraindividual process approach to the relationship between extraversion and positive affect: is acting extraverted as "good" as being extraverted? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1409–1422.
Fraisse, P. (1963). The psychology of time (J. Leith, Trans. New York: Harper & Row.
Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 300–319.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Positive emotions broaden and build. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 47(1), 53.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Cohn, M. A. (2008). Positive emotions. In M. Lewis, J. Haviland-Jones & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 777–796) (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Fridhandler, B. M. (1986). Conceptual note on state, trait, and the state–trait distinction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(1), 169–174.
Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gabriel, M. (1988). Boredom: Exploration of a developmental perspective. Clinical Social Work Journal, 16, 156–164.
Game, A. M. (2007). Workplace boredom coping: Health, safety, and HR implications. Personnel Review, 36, 701–721.
Gana, K., & Akremi, M. (1998). L'échelle de Disposition à l'Ennui (EDE): Adaptation française et validation du Boredom Proneness Scale (BP).L'année. Psychologique, 98(3), 429–450.
Gasper, K., & Middlewood, B. L. (2014). Approaching novel thoughts: Understanding why elation and boredom promote associative thought more than distress and relaxation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 52, 50–57.
Geiwitz, P. J. (1966). Structure of boredom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 592–600.
Giakoumis, D., Vogiannou, A., Kosunen, I., Moustakas, K., Tzovaras, D., & Hassapis, G. (2010) Identifying psychophysiological correlates of boredom and negative mood induced during HCI. BIOSTEC 2010, Valencia, Spain, pp. 3–12.
Gibbon, J., Church, R., & Meck, W. (1984). Scalar timing in memory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 423, 52–77.
Goetz, T., & Frenzel, A. C. (2006). Phänomenologie schulischer Langeweile. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 38(4), 149–153.
Goetz, T., Pekrun, R., Hall, N., & Haag, L. (2006). Academic emotions from a social-cognitive perspective: Antecedents and domain specificity of students' affect in the context of Latin instruction. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(2), 289–308.
Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., Hall, N. C., Nett, U. E., Pekrun, R., & Lipnevich, A. A. (2014). Types of boredom: An experience sampling approach. Motivation and Emotion, 38(3), 401–419.
Goldberg, Y. K., Eastwood, J. D., LaGuardia, J., & Danckert, J. (2011). Boredom: An emotional experience distinct from apathy, anhedonia, or depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(6), 647.
Gordon, A., Wilkinson, R., McGown, A., & Jovanoska, A. (1997). The psychometric properties of the boredom proneness scale: An examination of its validity. Psychological Studies, 42, 85–97.
Grassian, S. (2006). Psychiatric effects of solitary confinement. Wash. UJL & Pol'y, 22, 325.
Greenson, R. R. (1953). On boredom. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 1, 7–21.
Grondin, S., & Macar, F. (1992). Dividing attention between temporal and nontemporal tasks: A performance operating characteristics—POC—Analysis. In F. Macar, V. Pouthas, & W. J. Friedman (Eds.), Towards bridging the gap (pp. 119–128). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Grubb, E. A. (1975). Assembly line boredom and individual differences in recreation participation. Journal of Leisure Research, 7(4), 256–269.
Hamilton, J. A. (1981). Attention, personality, and the self-regulation of mood: Absorbing interest and boredom. Progress in Experimental Personality Research, 10, 281315.
Hamilton, J. A., Haier, R. J., & Buchsbaum, M. S. (1984). Intrinsic enjoyment and boredom coping scales: Validation with personality, evoked potential, and attention measures. Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 183–193.
Hansen, J., & Trope, Y. (2013). When time flies: How abstract and concrete mental construal affect the perception of time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 336–347.
Harris, M. B. (2000). Correlates and characteristics of boredom proneness and boredom. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 576–598.
Hartocollis, P. (1972). Time as a dimension of affects. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 20, 92–108.
Hasselton, M. G., & Ketelaar, T. (2006). Irrational emotions or emotional wisdom? The evolutionary psychology of emotions and behavior. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Affect in social thinking and behavior (pp. 21–39). New York: Psychology Press.
Havermans, R. C., Vancleef, L., Kalamatianos, A., & Nederkoorn, C. (2015). Eating and inflicting pain out of boredom. Appetite, 85, 52–57.
Hebb, D. O. (1955). Drives and the CNS (conceptual nervous system). Psychological Review, 62, 243–254.
Heidegger, M. (1983). Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik. Welt-Endlichkeit-Einsamkeit. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, (The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics: World, finitude, solitude. Indiana University Press, 2001).
Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–127.
Hill, A. B., & Perkins, R. E. (1985). Towards a model of boredom. British Journal of Psychology, 76(2), 235-240.
Hitchcock, E. M., Dember, W. N., Warm, J. S., Moroney, B. W., & See, J. E. (1999). Effects of cueing and knowledge of results on workload and boredom in sustained attention. Human Factors, 41, 365–372.
Hunter, A., & Eastwood, J. D. (2016). Does state boredom cause failures of attention? Examining the relations between trait boredom, state boredom, and sustained attention. Experimental Brain Research. doi:10.1007/s00221-016-4749-7.
Hunter, J. A., Abraham, E. H., Hunter, A. G., Goldberg, L. C., & Eastwood, J. D. (2016). Personality and boredom proneness in the prediction of creativity and curiosity. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 22, 48–57.
Isen, A. M. (1984). Toward understanding the role of affect in cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 179-236), Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Weissinger, E. (1987). Leisure and boredom. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5, 356–364.
Izard, C. E. (1977). Human emotions. New York: Springer.
Jiang, Y., Lianekhammy, J., Lawson, A., Guo, C., Lynam, D., Joseph, J. E., et al. (2009). Brain responses to repeated visual experience among low and high sensation seekers: Role of boredom susceptibility. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 173(2), 100–106.
Johnstone, T., & Scherer, K. R. (2000). Vocal communication of emotion. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 220–235). New York: Guilford.
Kanevsky, L., & Keighley, T. (2003). To produce or not to produce? Understanding boredom and the honor in underachievement. Roeper Review: A Journal on Gifted Education, 26, 20–28.
Karmarkar, U. R., & Buonomano, D. V. (2007). Timing in the absence of clocks: Encoding time in neural network states. Neuron, 53, 427–438.
Kass, S. J., Beede, K. E., & Vodanovich, S. J. (2010). Self-report measures of distractibility as correlates of simulated driving performance. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 42(3), 874–880.
Kecklund, G., & Åkerstedt, T. (1993). Sleepiness in long distance truck driving: An ambulatory EEG study of night driving. Ergonomics, 36(9), 1007–1017.
Keltner, D., & Gross, J. J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 13(5), 467–480.
Keltner, D., Haidt, J., & Shiota, M. N. (2006).Social functionalism and the evolution of emotions. In M. Schaller, J. A. Simpson, & D. T. Kenrick (eds.), Evolution and Social Psychology (pp. 115–142). New York: Psychology Press.
Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330, 932.
Klonowicz, T. (1987). Reactivity and the control of arousal. In J. Strelau & H. J. Eysenck (Eds.), Personality dimensions and arousal (pp. 197–216). New York: Plenum.
Kroes, S. (2005). Detecting boredom in meetings (pp. 1–5). Enschede: University of Twente.
Lal, S. K., & Craig, A. (2002). Driver fatigue: Electroencephalography and psychological assessment. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 313–321.
Larson, R. W., & Richards, M. H. (1991). Boredom in the middle school years: Blaming schools versus blaming students. American Journal of Education, 99, 418–443.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lazzaro, I., Gordon, E., Whitmont, S., Plahn, M., Li, W., Clarke, S., et al. (1998). Quantified EEG activity in adolescent attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical EEG (electroencephalography), 29(1), 37–42.
Leary, M. R., Rogers, P. A., Canfield, R. W., & Coe, C. (1986). Boredom in interpersonal encounters: Antecedents and social implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 968–975.
Lee, T. W. (1986). Toward the development and validation of a measure of job measurement. Manhattan College Journal of Business, 15, 22–28.
Levenson, R. W. (1994). Human emotions: A functional view. In P. Ekman & R. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 123–126). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lewinsky, H. (1943). Boredom. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 13, 147–152.
Lhommet, M., & Marsella, S. C. (2015). Expressing emotion through posture and gesture. In R. Calvo, S. D’Mello, J. Gratch, & A. Kappas (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of affective computing (pp. 273–285). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Lohrmann, K. (2008). Langeweile im Unterricht (Boredom in class). Miinster: Waxmann.
London, H., & Monello, L. (1974). Cognitive manipulation of boredom. In H. London & R. Nisbett (Eds.), Thought and feeling (pp. 44–59). Chicago: Aldine.
London, H., Schubert, D. S., & Washburn, D. (1972). Increase of autonomic arousal by boredom. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 80, 29–36.
Lundberg, U., Melin, B., Evans, G. W., & Holmberg, L. (1993). Physiological deactivation after two contrasting tasks at a video display terminal: Learning vs. repetitive data entry. Ergonomics, 36, 601–611.
Malkovsky, E., Merrifield, C., Goldberg, Y., & Danckert, J. (2012). Exploring the relationship between boredom and sustained attention. Experimental Brain Research, 221(1), 59–67.
Mann, S., & Cadman, R. (2014). Does being bored make us more creative?.Creativity. Research Journal, 26(2), 165–173.
Mann, S., & Robinson, A. (2009). Boredom in the lecture theatre: An investigation into the contributors, moderators and outcomes of boredom amongst university students. British Educational Research Journal, 35(2), 243–258.
Martin, M., Sadlo, G., & Stew, G. (2006). The phenomenon of boredom. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(3), 193–211.
Matell, M. S., & Meck, W. H. (2000). Neuropsychological mechanisms of interval timing behaviour. BioEssays, 22, 94–103.
Matell, M. S., & Meck, W. H. (2004). Cortico-striatal circuits and interval timing: Coincidence-detection of oscillatory processes. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research, 21, 139–170.
McDaniel, B., D'Mello, S., King, B., Chipman, P., Tapp, K., & Graesser, A. (2007, January). Facial features for affective state detection in learning environments. Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Society, 29(29), 467–472.
Meck, W. H. (1983). Selective adjustment of the speed of the clock and memory processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes, 9, 171–201.
Mercer, K. B., & Eastwood, J. D. (2010). Is boredom associated with problem gambling behaviour? It depends on what you mean by ‘boredom’. International Gambling Studies, 10(1), 91–104.
Merrifield, C., & Danckert, J. (2014). Characterizing the psychophysiological signature of boredom. Experimental Brain Research, 232(2), 481–491.
Mikulas, W. L., & Vodanovich, S. J. (1993). The essence of boredom. Psychological Record, 43(1), 3–12.
Morris, W. N. (1989). Mood: The frame of mind. New York: Springer.
Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 247–259.
Musharbash, Y. (2007). Boredom, time, and modernity: An example from aboriginal Australia. American Anthropologist, 109(2), 307–317.
Nederkoorn, C., Vancleef, L., Wilkenhöner, A., Claes, L., & Havermans, R. C. (2016). Self-inflicted pain out of boredom. Psychiatry Research, 237, 127–132.
Nesselroade, J. R. (1988). Some implications of the trait–state distinction for the study of development over the life span: The case of personality. In P. B. Baltes, D. L. Featherman, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 8, pp. 163–189). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Nett, U. E., Goetz, T., & Daniels, L. M. (2010). What to do when feeling bored?: Students' strategies for coping with boredom. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(6), 626–638.
Neu, J. (1998). Boring from within: Endogenous versus reactive boredom. In W. F. Flack & J. D. Laird (Eds.), Emotions in psychopathology: Theory and research (pp. 158–170). London: Oxford University Press.
Ng, A. H., Liu, Y., Chen, J. Z., & Eastwood, J. D. (2015). Culture and state boredom: A comparison between European Canadians and Chinese. Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 13–18.
Noulhiane, M., Mella, N., Samson, S., Ragot, R., & Pouthas, V. (2007). How emotional auditory stimuli modulate time perception. Emotion, 7(4), 697–704.
Nowlis, V., & Nowlis, H. H. (1956). The description and analysis of mood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 65, 345–355.
O’Hanlon, J. F. (1981). Boredom: Practical consequences and a theory. Acta Psychologica, 49, 161–173.
Oatley, K., & Jenkins, J. M. (1996). Understanding emotions. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Oatley, K., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1987). Towards a cognitive theory of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 1, 20–50.
O'Brien, W. (2014). Boredom. Analysis, 74, 236–244. doi:10.1093/analys/anu041.
Ornstein, R. E. (1970). On the experience of time. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
Oswald, I. (1962). The EEG of sleep. In I. Oswald (Ed.), Sleeping and waking: Physiology and psychology (pp. 35–41). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Parkinson, B., Totterdell, P., Briner, R. B., & Reynolds, S. (1996). Changing moods: The psychology of mood and mood regulation. London: Longman.
Passik, S. D., Inman, A., Kirsch, K., Theobald, D., & Dickerson, P. (2003). Initial validation of a scale to measure purposelessness, understimulation, and boredom in cancer patients: Toward a redefinition of depression in advanced disease. Palliative and Supportive Care, 1, 41–50.
Pattyn, N., Neyt, X., Henderickx, D., & Soetens, E. (2008). Psychophysiological investigation of vigilance decrement: Boredom or cognitive fatigue? Physiology & Behavior, 93(1), 369–378.
Peeters, G., & Czapinski, J. (1990). Positive-nega- tive asymmetry in evaluations: The distinction be- tween affective and informational negativity ef- fects. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Eu- ropean review of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 33–60). New York: Wiley.
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Daniels, L. M., Stupnisky, R. H., & Perry, R. P. (2010). Boredom in achievement settings: Exploring control-value antecedents and performance outcomes of a neglected emotion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 531–549.
Perkins, R. E., & Hill, A. B. (1985). Cognitive and affective aspects of boredom. The British Psychological Society, 76, 221–234.
Phipps-Nelson, J., Redman, J. R., & Rajaratnam, S. M. (2011). Temporal profile of prolonged, night-time driving performance: Breaks from driving temporarily reduce time-on-task fatigue but not sleepiness. Journal of Sleep Research, 20(3), 404–415.
Pouthas, V., & Perbal, S. (2004). Time perception does not only depend on accurate clock mechanisms but also on unimpaired attention and memory processes. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, 64, 367–385.
Poynter, W. D. (1983). Duration judgment and the segmentation of experience. Memory & Cognition, 11, 77–82.
Raccanello, D., & Bianchetti, C. (2014). Pictorial representations of achievement emotions: Preliminary data with children and adults. In T. Mascio, R. Gennari, P. Vitorini, R. Vicari, & F. de la Prieta (Eds.), Methodologies and Intelligent Systems for Technology Enhanced Learning (pp. 127–134). Springer International Publishing.
Ragheb, M. G., & Merydith, S. P. (2001). Development and validation of a unidimensional scale measuring free time boredom. Leisure Studies, 20, 41–59.
Raposa, M. L. (1999). Boredom and the religious imagination. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Reisenzein, R. (2000). Exploring the strength of association between the components of emotion syndromes: The case of surprise. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 1–38.
Robinson, W. P. (1975). Boredom at school. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 45(2), 141–152.
Roseman, I. J. (1984). Cognitive determinants of emotion: A structural theory. In P. Shaver (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology, Emotions, relationships, and health (Vol. 5, pp. 11–36). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Rosenberg, E. L. (1998). Levels of analysis and the organization of affect. Review of General Psychology, 2, 247–270.
Rosenberg, E., & Ekman, P. (1994). Coherence between expressive and experiential systems in emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 201–229.
Roy, D. (1959). " Banana Time": Job Satisfaction and Informal Interaction. Human Organization, 18(4), 158–168.
Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 296–320.
Rubia, K. (2011). “cool” inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus “hot” ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: A review. Biological Psychiatry, 69(12), e69–e87.
Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–1178.
Russell, B. (1996). The conquest of happiness. New York: W. W Norton & Company Inc..
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
Sangal, R. B., & Sangal, J. M. (2015). Use of EEG Beta-1 power and theta/Beta ratio over Broca’s area to confirm diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 46(3), 177–182.
Sansone, C., Weir, C., Harpster, L., & Morgan, C. (1992). Once a boring task always a boring task? Interest as a self-regulatory mechanism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 370–390.
Scerbo, M. W., Greenwald, C. Q., & Sawin, D. A. (1992). Vigilance: It’s boring, it’s difficult and I can’t do anything about it. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting, 36, 1508–1512.
Scherer, K. R. (1993). Studying the emotion-antecedent appraisal process: An expert system approach. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 325–355.
Scherer, K. R. (2013). Nonlinguistic vocal indicators of emotion and psychopathology. In C. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality and psychopathology (pp. 495–529). New York and London: Plenum Press.
Scherer, K. R., & Ellgring, H. (2007). Multimodal expression of emotion: Affect programs or componential appraisal patterns? Emotion, 7(1), 158–171.
Schier, M. A. (2000). Changes in EEG alpha power during simulated driving: A demonstration. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 37, 155–162.
Schueller, S. M. (2014). Person-activity fit in positive psychological interventions. In A. C. Parks & S. M. Schueller (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of positive psychological interventions (pp. 385-399). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), The handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 527–561). New York: Guilford Press.
Schwarz, N. (2000). Emotion, cognition, and decision making. Cognition & Emotion, 14(4), 433–440.
Schweizer, T. S. (2006). The psychology of novelty-seeking, creativity and innovation: Neurocognitive aspects within a work-psychological perspective. Creativity and Innovation Management, 15(2), 164–172.
Seel, R. T., & Kreutzer, J. S. (2003). Depression assessment after traumatic brain injury: An empirically based classification method. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 84(11), 1621–1628.
Silvia, P. J. (2008). Interest—The curious emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(1), 57–60.
Skowronski, M. (2012). When the bored behave badly (or exceptionally). Personnel Review, 41, 143–159.
Skowronski, J. J., & Carlston, D. E. (1989). Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanation. Psychological Re- view, 105, 131–142.
Smith, R. P. (1981). Boredom: A review. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 23, 329–340.
Smith, C. A., & Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Appraisal components, core relational themes, and the emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 233–269.
Smith, J. L., Wagaman, J., & Handley, I. M. (2009). Keeping it dull or making it fun: Task variation as a function of promotion versus prevention focus. Motivation and Emotion, 33(2), 150–160.
Spielberger, C. D. (1966a). The effects of anxiety on complex learning and academic achievement. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior (pp. 361–398). New York: Academic Press.
Spielberger, C. D. (1966b). Theory and research on anxiety. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior (pp. 3–20). New York: Academic Press.
Spielberger, C. D. (1972). Anxiety as an emotional state. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research (Vol. 1, pp. 23–49). New York: Academic Press.
Steinberger, F., Moeller, A., & Schroeter, R. (2016). The antecedents, experience, and coping strategies of driver boredom in young adult males. Journal of Safety Research, 59, 69–82.
Struk, A. A., Scholer, A. A., & Danckert, J. (2016). A self-regulatory approach to understanding boredom proneness. Cognition and Emotion, 30(8), 1388–1401.
Sundberg, N. D., Latkin, C. A., Farmer, R. F., & Saoud, J. (1991). Boredom in young adults gender and cultural comparisons. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 22(2), 209–223.
Taatgen, N. A., van Rijn, H., & Anderson, J. R. (2007). An integrated theory of prospective time interval estimation: The role of cognition, attention and learning. Psychological Review, 114, 577–598.
Tabatabaie, A. F., Azadehfar, M. R., Mirian, N., Noroozian, M., Yoonessi, A., & Yoonessi, A. (2014). Neural correlates of boredom in music perception. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, 5(4), 259–266.
Thackray, R. I., Bailey, J. P., & Touchstone, R. M. (1977). Physiological, subjective and performance correlates of reported boredom and monotony while performing a simulated radar control task. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Reports, 9, 75–78.
Todman, M. (2003). Boredom and psychotic disorders: Cognitive and motivational issues. Psychiatry, 66, 146–167.
Todman, M. (2013). The dimensions of state boredom: Frequency, duration, unpleasantness, consequences and causal attributions. Educational Research International, 1(1), 32–40.
Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2008). The evolutionary psychology of the emotions and their relationship to internal regulatory variables. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 103–129). New York: Guilford Press.
Treisman, M. (1963). Temporal discrimination and the indifference interval: Implications for a model of the “internal clock”. Psychological Monographs, 77, 1–31.
Treisman, M., Faulkner, A., Naish, P. L. N., & Brogan, D. (1990). The internal clock: Evidence for a temporal oscillator underlying time perception with some estimates of its characteristic frequency. Perception, 19, 705–743.
Troutwine, R., & O’Neal, E. C. (1981). Volition, performance of a boring task and time estimation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 52(3), 865–866.
Tze, V. M. C., Daniels, L. M., Klassen, R. M., & Johnson, C.-H. L. (2013). Canadian and Chinese university students’ approaches to coping with academic boredom. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 32–43.
van Aart, J., Bartneck, C., Hu, J., Rauterberg, M., & Salem, B. (2010). How to behave as Alice in wonderland–about boredom and curiosity. Entertainment Computing, 1, 125–137. doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2010.09.003.
van Hooff, M. L., & van Hooft, E. A. (2014). Boredom at work: Proximal and distal consequences of affective work-related boredom. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(3), 348.
Van Tilburg, W. A., & Igou, E. R. (2011). On boredom and social identity: A pragmatic meaning-regulation approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1679–1691.
Van Tilburg, W. A., & Igou, E. R. (2012). On boredom: Lack of challenge and meaning as distinct boredom experiences. Motivation and Emotion, 36(2), 181–194.
Van Tilburg, W. A., & Igou, E. R. (2016). Going to political extremes in response to boredom. European Journal of Social Psychology, 46(6), 687–699.
Van Tilburg, W. A., & Igou, E. R. (2017a). Boredom begs to differ: Differentiation from other negative emotions. Emotion, 17(2), 309–322.
Van Tilburg, W. A., & Igou, E. R. (2017b). Can boredom help? Increased prosocial intentions in response to boredom. Self and Identity, 16(1), 82–96.
Van Tilburg, W. A., Igou, E. R., & Sedikides, C. (2013). In search of meaningfulness: Nostalgia as an antidote to boredom. Emotion, 13(3), 450–461.
Vodanovich, S. J. (2003). Psychometric measures of boredom: A review of the literature. The Journal of Psychology, 137(6), 569–595.
Vodanovich, S. J., & Kass, S. J. (1990). A factor analytic study of the boredom proneness scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 115–123.
Vodanovich, S. J., & Watt, J. D. (2015). Self-report measures of boredom: An updated review of the literature. The Journal of Psychology, 150(2), 196–228. doi:10.1080/00223980.2015.1074531.
Vodanovich, S. J., Watt, J. D., & Piotrowski, C. (1997). Boredom proneness in African-American college students: A factor analytic perspective. Education, 118(2), 229–236.
Vogel-Walcutt, J. J., Fiorella, L., Carper, T., & Schatz, S. (2012). The definition, assessment, and mitigation of state boredom within educational settings: A comprehensive review. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 89–111.
Wackermann, J., & Ehm, W. (2006). The dual klepsydra model of internal time representation and time reproduction. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 239, 482–493.
Walker, E. L. (1980). Psychological complexity and preference. Monterey: Brooks/Cole.
Wallace, J. C., Vodanovich, S. J., & Restino, B. M. (2003). Predicting cognitive failures from boredom proneness and daytime sleepiness scores: An investigation within military and undergraduate samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(4), 635–644.
Wallbott, H. G. (1998). Bodily expression of emotion. European Journal of Psychology, 28, 879–896.
Wangh, M. (1975). Boredom in psychoanalytic perspective. Sociological Research, 42, 538–550.
Watt, J. D. (1991). Effect of boredom proneness on time perception. Psychological Reports, 69(1), 323–327.
Wearden, J., & Penton-Voak, I. (1995). Feeling the heat: Body temperature and the rate of subjective time, revisited. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B, 48, 129–141.
Weinstein, L., Xie, X., & Cleanthous, C. C. (1995). Purpose in life, boredom, and volunteerism in a group of retirees. Psychological Reports, 76(2), 482–482.
Weissinger, E., Caldwell, L. L., & Bandalos, D. L. (1992). Relation between intrinsic motivation and boredom in leisure time. Leisure Sciences, 14, 317–325.
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336–1346.
Wilson, T. D., Reinhard, D. A., Westgate, E. C., Gilbert, D. T., Ellerbeck, N., Hahn, C., Brown, C. L., & Shaked, A. (2014). Social psychology. Just think: the challenges of the disengaged mind. Science, 345, 75–77.
Wittmann, M. (2009). The inner experience of time. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 364(1525), 1955–1967.
Wittmann, M., & van Wassenhove, V. (2009). The experience of time: Neural mechanisms and the interplay of emotion, cognition and embodiment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 364(1525), 1809–1813.
Yoshida, K., Sawamura, D., Inagaki, Y., Ogawa, K., Ikoma, K., & Sakai, S. (2014). Brain activity during the flow experience: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. Neuroscience Letters, 573, 30–34.
Zakay, D., & Block, R. A. (2004). Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: An executive-control perspective. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, 64(3), 319–328.
Zakay, D., & Block, R. A. (1997). Temporal cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6(1), 12–16.
Zhao, C., Zhao, M., Liu, J., & Zheng, C. (2012). Electroencephalogram and electrocardiograph assessment of mental fatigue in a driving simulator. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 45, 83–90.
Zuckerman, M. (1976). General and situation-specific traits and states: New approaches to assessment of anxiety and other constructs. In M. Zuckerman & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Emotion and anxiety: New concepts, methods, and applications (pp. 133–174). Hillsdale: Errbaum.
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Zuckerman, M. (1983). The distinction between trait and state scales is not arbitrary: Comment on Allen and Potkay's "on the arbitrary distinction between traits and states.". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1083–1086.
Zuckerman, M. (1987). A critical look at three arousal constructs in personality theories: Optimal levels of arousal, strength of the nervous system, and sensitivities to signals of reward and punishment. In J. Strelau & H. J. Eysenck (Eds.), Personality dimensions and arousal (pp. 217–232). New York: Plenum.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Elpidorou, A. The bored mind is a guiding mind: toward a regulatory theory of boredom. Phenom Cogn Sci 17, 455–484 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-017-9515-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-017-9515-1