HORNED GODS: A Comparative Mythology Perspective by URMI CHANDA-VAZ Department of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai 1. INTRODUCTION The discovery of the ancient Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro sites changed the way we looked at our ancient past. Their systematic urban spaces and sophisticated town plans inspire much awe even to this day. Relics found at the sites offer important clues of the culture of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), and among the most important relics is, what is called the ‘Pashupati Seal’. This famous seal has the engraving of a man with a horned headdress and has been the subject of much speculation. Was he a mere man in a horned headdress? Or a horned god of reverence? Was this ‘deity’, a precursor to the Hindu Shiva? Much has been written and said about this unique seal, and we shall return to it later in the paper. However, the Pashupati seal is not entirely unique, for similar icons have been seen across many cultures of the world. This paper attempts to bring together such gods, man-beasts, mythical figures… call them what you may. But before we ascend to the ‘gods’ in heaven, let us start with the beasts on earth. 1.1 HORNS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD Broadly speaking, horns are observed only among herbivores, and mostly in males. Horns are an obvious defence mechanism, that allows these animals to combat the claws and teeth of carnivores. Bulls, stags, rams, buffaloes, rhinos are great examples of animals with horns, and appear consistently in mythological tales. 1 These animals have inspired a lot of myth and art, given their strength and beauty. Eventually, horns came to be associated with strength and virility, as the best bulls of a species had the largest and most magnificent horns. In fact, in some Asian societies, powdered horns of animals are prescribed and consumed (mostly illegally) as powerful aphrodisiacs even today. 1.2 AS WITH HORNS, SO WITH TUSKS? While on the subject of virility, horns have been considered sexual symbols or associated with sex in popular culture. Consider the terms ‘horny’ and ‘cuckold’. Horny refers to a sexually aroused person, while a cuckold is a derogatory term for a man whose wife has committed adultery. In Europe, such a man may be referred to one ‘wearing the (cuckold’s) horns’. The allusion is to the mating habits of stags, who forfeit their mates, when they are defeated by another male of the species. The point is, horns are closely associated with sexuality and virility (or the lack of it). Varaha holding Bhudevi, 7 CE, Mahabalipuram I deviate a little here, wanting to pose a question about tusks. Looking through Freudian lenses, could one consider the symbolism of tusks also phallic, in the way horns perhaps are? The cases in point here would be Varaha - Vishnu’s anthropomorphic man-boar avataar, and even Indra, riding his tusked bull elephant, Airavata. In Richard Blurton’s book ‘Hindu Art’, Varaha has been described as a god popular for his virility in around 1 BCE. Also, perhaps it is no coincidence that Indra and his vahana are both known for their high sexual drives and virility. Incidentally, the Rig Veda (Book 1, Hymn 163, Verses 9 and 11) also describes Indra as having golden horns. 2 2. PREHISTORIC CONNECTIONS Paleolithic Bull painting, Lascaux caves, France India Boar chasing man, cave painting, Bhimbetka, Cave paintings such as the ones in the Lascaux caves in France and the ones at Bhimbekta in Madhya Pradesh, India, suggest that man has had a unique relationship of fascination and fear with horned animals. In the prehistoric pastoral cultures, man must have had plenty of opportunity to observe these horned animals and their behaviours, and spun stories around them. The Indus Valley unicorn seals could well be an example of the earliest myths about strange and supernatural (one) horned beasts. An Indus Valley seal depicting a unicorn It is not hard to imagine these myths becoming more elaborate, with horns being attributed magical and even divine qualities. Man must have transitioned from stories of horned beasts to horned men and eventually to horned gods. These ‘gods’ either had animal heads with horns, or had horns growing out of their heads, or wore horned headdresses. One of the most famous headdressed figures is found on the IVC ‘Pashupati’ seal, which we shall discuss next. 3 2.1 THE PASHUPATI SEAL As with most cultural relics of the IVC, the Pashupati Seal has been the subject of much scholarly debate. Given that the IVC script has not been deciphered yet, many theories purporting the meaning of the seal have been presented. While rationalists like to dismiss any ‘divine’ connections, the identification of the figure on the seal with Pashupati remains strong. The Pashupati Seal, also called Seal #420, is a Seatite seal dated approximately 2600-1900 BCE. It was discovered in Mohenjo-Daro in 1928-29 in an archaeological expedition under EGH Mackay. It was first ‘interpreted’ by the then Director General of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), John Marshall, based on its salient features. Marshall’s theory is the most popular yet, and it resonates especially well with theorists who believe that the Indus Valley Civilization was indeed the Vedic Civilization. The Pashupati Seal from Mohenjo-Daro The salient features of the seal are: ● An image of a male figure sitting in a Yogic posture on an elevated platform ● The pose is notably that of Gorakshasana - a pose for the protection of animals (cows) ● The man/god is wearing a horned headdress, which have a bulls horns and resemble a trident or trishula ● The figure has at least three faces ● The figure has what seems to be an erect phallus ● There are several animals surrounding the ‘Yogi’, including a tiger, a rhino, an elephant, a water buffalo, and a couple of animals from the deer family ● The Yogi sports several bangles and necklaces/ breastplate ● Inscriptions on top of the seal in IVC ‘script’ 4 It is hard to ignore the iconographic similarities the seal has with that of the Hindu deity, Shiva or his earlier form, Rudra. Marshall summarises the reasons for his identification as follows: “My reasons for the identification are four. In the first place the figure has three faces and that Siva was portrayed with three as well as with more usual five faces, there are abundant examples to prove. Secondly, the head is crowned with the horns of a bull and the trisula are characteristic emblems of Siva. Thirdly, the figure is in a typical yoga attitude, and Siva was and still is, regarded as a mahayogi—the prince of Yogis. Fourthly, he is surrounded by animals, and Siva is par excellence the "Lord of Animals" (Pasupati)—of the wild animals of the jungle, according to the Vedic meaning of the word pasu, no less than that of domesticated cattle.” Until the IVC script is deciphered, the secret of the IVC seal is at best guessed. However, there was a continual incidence of horned deities in the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere. 3. INDIAN HORNED GODS While the figure on the IVC seal is identified with Pashupati/Rudra/Shiva, Shiva is not commonly depicted as a horned deity. The closest he has to horns are the tips of the crescent moon that sits on his head. There are, however, other Indian gods that have horns or are theriocephalic with bodies of men and heads of horned beasts. We consider a few examples below. 3.1 AGNI Agni, one of the oldest gods of the Vedic pantheon, is sometimes depicted with horns. He also rides a horned ram as his vahana. In the Rig Veda, Agni is sometimes described as having four horns and sometimes as thousand. In his translation of the Rig Veda, Ralph T H Griffith suggests that the four horns of Agni could represent the four Vedas or the four cardinal points, if associated with the Adityas. The aforementioned hymns describing Agni are as follows: Book 4, Hymn 58, Verse 3: “...Four are his horns, three are the feet that bear him; his heads are two, his hands are seven in number…” Book 5, Hymn 1, Verse 4: “...That strength the Bull with Thousand horns possesses. In might, O Agni, thou excellest others…” 5 3.2 DAKSHA PRAJAPATI Though not a ‘god’, Daksha Prajapati is an important mythological figure, because of the decisive role in plays in Shaiva lore. The Matsya Purana (Ch. 10) states that Daksha is one of the many sons of the Hindu creator god, Prajapati having been ‘born’ from his right thumb. He is depicted having a man’s body and a ram’s head with spiral horns, and has a muscular, stocky body. Daksha Prajapati is said to be father to many of daughters, some of whom are married to Dharma and some to Bhrigu, according to the Vishnu and Padma Puranas. But his most famous daughter is Sati, who marries Shiva despite her father’s wishes. The Vayu Purana describes the very famous story of the Daksha Yagna, where an angry Daksha excludes Shiva from his invitation list, and Sati is upset. She goes to the Yagna and confronts her father about Shiva’s exclusion, whereby he proceeds to insult his ‘savage’ son-in-law some more. Deeply aggrieved by the insults meted to her husband, Sati immolates herself, thereby inviting Shiva’s wrath. An enraged Shiva descends upon the yagna with his ganas and destroys everything in sight. From his matted locks arises Virabhadra, who tears apart Daksha Prajapati’s head and throws it in the sacrificial fire. Later, when Shiva is placated, he brings Daksha Prajapati back to life and replaces his head with a ram’s, and allows him to finish the sacrifice. The story, of course, continues with a bereaved and crazed Shiva roaming the worlds with Sati’s corpse on his back, and Vishnu pacifying him by cutting off Sati’s body with his chakra. The important point here, however, is the symbolism of the ram’s head. Daksha was someone who placed (Shiva’s) physical appearances over spiritual merit, and was hence deemed to have the base nature of an 6 animal. The ram’s head was a reminder of Daksha’s loss of humanity. While not a very positive association, it is remarkable that of the few horned characters in Indian mythology, Daksha is one and he is associated with Shiva Pashupati. 3.3 NAIGAMESHA Naigamesha sculpture, Tala cave temple, India Another god that looks remarkably similar to Daksha Prajapati is Naigamesha, an ancient Jain deity, who is mentioned in the Jain text, Kalpa Sutra. Variously called Negamesha, Nemesa, Naigameshin, this ram-headed deity is associated with children. In his paper on ‘Specimens of Jaina Sculptures in Mathura’, Dr. Bühler notes that “There can be no doubt that the Naigamesha or Nejamesha of the Brahmins (Grihyasutras), who seizes children and sorely afflicts them disease, and the son-granting, embryo-exchanging1 Naigamesha-Naigameshin of the Jains are, in reality, identical.” The malevolent gods of the Hindus become the benevolent gods of the Jains, as far as the matter of children goes. However, in the Hindu context, Naigamesha is also considered a companion of Kumara or Kartikeya2 . One of the translations of his name mean ‘General of Indra’, which along with Kartikeya, gives this god some associations with war. What I find notable, yet again, is Naigamesha’s indirect connect with Shiva through Kartikeya. And we will see next how such Shiva/Pashupati connections seem to echo far beyond India. 1 According to the Kalpa Sutra, Naigamesha, on the orders of the king of the gods Indra, transferred the embryo of the Tirthankar Mahavira from the womb of the Brahmin (priest class) woman Devananda to the Kshatriya (ruling caste) Trishala, who finally delivers Mahavira. 2 Indian Sculpture by Pratapaditya Pal, University of California Press 7 4. YAMANTAKA VAJRABHAIRAVA: THE HORNED DEITY OF TANTRIC BUDDHISM A bronze statue of Yamantaka Vajrabhairaav embracing the goddess Vajravetali, British Museum Yamantaka Vajrabhairava is an important deity or Yidam in Vajrayana Tantra. He is considered an Ishtadeva, as he is the wrathful form of Mañjuśrī - the bodhisattva of enlightenment. Etymologically speaking, Yamantaka is a combination of the word, Yama (death) and Antaka (one who ends), thus making him the deity who ends (the cycle of death) death. He is a Dharmapala or an upholder of Dharma and is worshipped either in the lone hero form or with his consort, Vajravetali. The Hindu Yama Deva 3 The myth of Yamantaka is that the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī took this terrible form to combat Yama3 . Yama was wiping off Tibet’s population with his lust to kill, and Yamantaka sought him out in the underworld, took a form to match his, and ultimately defeated him. Yamantaka is usually depicted with 34 arms and nine heads, the central one being a bull’s or a buffalo’s. This is an obvious reference to the Hindu Yama, who also rides a buffalo as his vahana. That the vahana and his rider are combined to make a theriocephalic form by the time it reaches Buddhist myth is an interesting development. While Yamantaka is an important deity, the Buddhist/ Tibetan Yama also holds his own in their respective mythologies. Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo­Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art by Robert N. Linrothe 8 5. CELTIC POLYTHEISM Celtic Polytheism, practiced between 500 BCE and 500 CE, gave rise to a number of gods and practices from the Indo-European family of religions. Some of these gods included Teutatis, Taranis and Lugus and the religion was marked by ritual (sometimes human) sacrifices, presided by a priest-like people called the Druids. After Gaul, Britain and Ireland were taken over by the Romans, the indigenous Celtic religion fused with Roman influences to form a new set of religious beliefs and a new pantheon of gods. Primary in this new set of deities were Cernunnos, Artio, Telesphorus, etc., but we shall turn our attention to Cernunnos, for he was the horned one among deities. 5.1 CERNUNNOS: THE CELTIC HORNED GOD Cernunnos is the generic name given to the horned god in the Celtic pantheon. It name itself occurs only once in the Pillar of the Boatmen, housed in modern day museum in Paris, France. The Pillar of the Boatmen is a square section pillar depicted several Gaul deities, from the 1 BCE, which was originally part of a Gallo-Roman temple. Dedicated mainly to Jupiter, one of the deities carved and inscribed on the pillar is Cernunnos. Detail of Cernunnos from The Pillar of the Boatmen There are several theories about the etymology of the name ‘Cernunnos’, but the popular notion is that Cernunnos is derived from somewhat from the Latin word ‘Cornu’4 , which means horn. Therefore, Cernunnos is deemed to be a horned god of some sort, associated with nature and fertility. His most defining characteristics are his horns and torques (neck rings). One of the most detailed depictions of this deity is found on the Gundestrup Cauldron. Delamarre; Greek text and English translation of the passage from Eustathius' Homeric commentaries given by Edward Wigan, "Account of a Collection of Roman Gold Coins," Numismatic Chronicle 5 (1865), p. 11 4 9 5.2 THE GUNDESTRUP CAULDRON The Gundestrup Cauldron The Gundestrup Cauldron is one of the most important archaeological relics from the La Tène period or early Roman Iron Age, dated between 200 BCE and 300 CE. It was unearthed in the town of Gundestrup in Denmark and is currently housed in the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen. Found in seven fragments, the silver cauldron was later reconstructed, whereby alternating plates depicting gods and goddesses were observed. One of the interior plates has the etching of a horned deity, generally accepted to be Cernunnos. Cernunnos is seen on this etching as an antlered god, surrounded by a variety of animals. Sitting cross-legged, he holds a snake in one hand and a torque (neck ring) in the other hand. He is remarkably similar to the figure on the IVC Pashupati Seal, with resemblances in posture, creatures and of course, horns. Detail of Cernunnos from the Gundestrup Cauldron Considering the earliest trade connections between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia and beyond, it is not impossible to imagine that the legend of Pashupati, if there was one, reached Celtic shores and perhaps eventually became Cernunnos. 10 6. THE HORNED GOD(S) OF NEO PAGANISM AND WICCAN TRADITIONS Similar horned deities associated with nature and fertility also appear in the Neo Pagan and Wiccan traditions, often syncretic with Cernunnos. In Wicca, this god is simply known as The (Great) Horned God. He is, however, unlike Cernunnos in that he does not have horns growing out of his head, but has an ibex’s head affixed on his torso - much like the Hindu Daksha Prajapati or the Jain Naigamesha. A model of the Wiccan Horned God at the Museum of Witchcraft in Boscastle, Cornwall This Horned God is an equal counterpart of the Wiccan (Mother/Earth) Goddess, and is associated with nature, wilderness, sexuality, hunting, the life cycle, etc. Unlike the Goddess, who is eternal, the Horned God mates with the Goddess, dies, and resurrects in seasonal cycles. This dual principle of creation is certainly reminiscent of the Hindu idea of Purusha and Prakriti, where the male and female principles must unite to create and sustain the world. Carvings/ statues such as these are abundant in architecture across Europe 6.1 Consider also the Green Men in pagan traditions, some of whom are depicted with horns. Green Men are spirits of nature, responsible for/ representing the different seasons. 11 7. THE ‘GODS’ OF ENKOMI The town of Enkomi in Cyprus was an important port during the Middle Bronze Age. It was eventually abandoned due to geographic disturbances. However, archaeological relics from the Chalcolithic Period offer glimpses of a seemingly rich culture. The cult of the goddess was firmly fixed in Enkomi, as evidenced by nude pregnant female terracotta and stone figurines. But ithyphallic male figures and temples dedicated to bulls have also been found, suggesting a rise of male fertility deities around the same time5 . The Ingot God of Enkomi Enkomi At Enkomi, two ancient temples housing male ‘gods’ are significant in this paper. The Horned God of One is the ‘Ingot God’ (left), called so because he stands upon an ingot. He is fully armoured, wearing a horned helmet, holding a shield and a spear. The other is the ‘Horned God’ with bare hands. The Ingot God and the Horned God are presumably linked to industry and agriculture (fertility) respectively. It is interesting to note that several bull skulls were excavated near the Sanctuary of the Horned God, which were probably worn as ritual headgear by worshippers. However, not much else is known about the backstories or mythologies of these gods. 5 Symbiosis, Symbolism, and the Power of the Past: Canaan, Ancient Israel, and their Neighbours from the Late Bronze Age through Roman Palestina, edited by William G. Dever, Seymour Gitin, reference from the essay ‘The Culture of Astarte in Cyprus’ by Vassos Karageorghis *The horned helmets of Vikings is largely a modern pop culture construct. There are few, if any, archaeological evidences to suggest that Vikings indeed wore horned helmets in combat. 12 8. HORNED FIGURES IN CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY The Greeks weren’t far behind when it came to introducing horned gods in their pantheon. With Greek invasions in far-reaching nations, cultural exchange was inevitable. Theories of oriental influence on classical Greek mythology have been proposed since Muller’s times, for example, the Vedic god Dyaus Pitr being the base for the Greek god, Zeus. So it would not be too far fetched to propose that horned gods from other cultures inspired one of the most enigmatic gods from the Greek pantheon - Pan. 8.1 PAN A Hellenistic statue of Pan from the Musée du Louvre, Paris, France Pan was one of the older Greek gods, with his name having been derived from the Greek work ‘paein’ meaning ‘to pasture’. He is therefore the rustic god of the wild, shepherds and flock, hunting, etc. The son of Hermes/Zeus and some nymph (parentage debatable), Pan is also associated with fertility, music and even theatrical criticism. Pan is notorious for his sexual overtures, having seduced many nymphs, including the moon goddess, Selene. Physically, Pan stands distinguished from other gods because of his zoomorphic form. He has a human head and torso, but a goat’s legs and horns. Another important aspect was that he could manifest simultaneously in many forms (sometimes called his sons), and hence there were many Pans. Some of these were called Kelaineus, Argennon, Aigikoros, Eugeneios, Omester, Daphoineus, Phobos, Philamnos, Xanthos, Glaukos, Argos, and Phorbas. 8.2 FAUNUS Pan’s Roman counterpart was called Faunus, and was similarly the god of forest, plains and fields. Faunus is also depicted with goat’s horns and goat’s legs. He is known by/ identified with several other names like Innus, Fatuus, Fatulcus and Favonius6 . The nature goddess Fauna is also related to him. 6 W. Warde Fowler (1899). The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic: An Introduction to the Study of the Religion of the Romans. London: Macmillan and Co. p. 259. Retrieved 2007­06­07. 13 8.3 OTHER HORNED CREATURES A thangka depicting a Yaksha with horns, Himalayan Art Resources Classical Greek mythology names other horned and hybrid creatures too, possibly inspired by Pan. These inspirations were carried further and assimilated in English folklore, giving rise to more such mythical characters. These liminal beings can be compared to Yakshas or nature spirits of Hindu mythology. Although Yakshas are not commonly depicted with horns in Hindu mythology, one can see some thangkas with horned Yakshas in the Buddhist context. But whatever their cultural origin, horned creatures are almost always connected to nature and by extension, fertility. Some such creatures have been listed below. L-R: A faun and a satyr from Roman myth, a puck and Herne the hunter from English lore and the Greek Minotaur FAUN: A faun is a half-human, half-goat creature, predominant in Roman mythology, structurally identical to the Greek god, Pan. These were mischievous forest spirits were whimsical and could help human travelers or lead them astray. SATYR: A satyr is a similar forest spirit, considered uglier, more cunning and more interested in wine and women than fauns. Although Greek descriptions of satyrs mention them as having human bodies, but with tails, ears and penises of horse, Roman traditions depict satyrs as having human bodies, goat legs and horns. A minor god of fertility, Silenus, led the Satyrs. PUCK: A puck is a half-tame wood spirit, occurring in the English folk tradition. Pucks could also be classified as demons or faeries, given their ambivalent natures. They could benevolent at times, and sometimes, malevolent. While Puck is used interchangeably with a folk character called Robin Goodfellow, it is more often used as a common noun for similar characters. 14 HERNE THE HUNTER: In William Shakespeare’s play, ‘The Merry Wives of Windsor’, there is mention of the horned ghost of Windsor Forest, who goes by the name of Herne the Hunter. He is a keeper of sorts of the forest, but is a fearsome character. It is purported that Herne might have originated from the Celtic god, Cernunnos, mentioned earlier in this paper. MINOTAUR: Coming back to Greek mythology, Minotaur was a fearsome half-man, half-bull creature born from the union of Pasiphaë and the Cretan Bull. He was ‘locked’ in a labyrinth by Minos. Minotaur was later killed by the Athenian hero, Theseus. Although more of a demon, Minotaur was an important figure in classical mythology, and has served as an important template in the creation of such generic minotaurs in contemporary fantasy literature and art. 9. EGYPT: MANY GODS, MANY HORNS The Egyptian pantheon of gods is perhaps the one with the most number of horned deities. It is hardly surprising, given that Egyptian mythology has the most number of anthropomorphic/ zoomorphic gods. One of the most influential among these ‘horned’ gods was Amun. 9.1 THE CULT OF AMMON/ AMUN Amun (also spelt Ammon) was a local deity of Thebes, but later rose to prominence around 21 BCE, thanks to the ruling king of the 11th dynasty. The national importance of this god is reflected in his later identification with the sun god, Ra, whereby he came to be known as Amun-Ra. He was a self-created god and considered chief among them. The cult of Amun was so famous that it spread from Egypt to Libya and then Greece. In Greece, it came to be known as the Zeus Ammon Cult, and later identified with Zeus. In the Greek artistic tradition, Amun’s plumes became Zeus’ horns, as several classical sculptures will testify (top right). In fact, Ammon’s cult was so famous, Alexander the Great had coins (bottom right) issued depicting himself with Ammon’s horns! 15 9.2 THE HORNED GODDESSES OF EGYPT HATHOR: Gods, anti-gods, demons or other creatures, horned mythological entities are almost always male across cultures. Egypt is a fine exception with a primary horned deity who is female in the form of Hathor. Hathor is the ancient goddess of fertility, joy, music, and feminine love. She was also the goddess of motherhood, and helped women in childbirth. Called the ‘Mistress of the West’, Hathor was responsible for welcoming the dead in the otherworld. She was also the patron deity of miners. These varied functions attributed to Hathor were a result of the assimilation of many older goddesses from the pre-dynastic times. It can be purported that the beginnings of the worship of Hathor lay in pre-historic times, just the way nature/mother goddesses were revered in most primitive cultures. Prime among Hathor’s symbols are a pair of horns between which sits a sun disk - attesting to her connection with the sun god, Ra. A uraeus or a hood-rearing snake (cobra) is attached to this sun disk and marks royalty. She wears a menat necklace, holds a forked staff in one hand and an ankh (the key of life) in the other. She is also often represented as a cow (left), remnants of the cults who worshipped nature, represented by cows. BAT is one such older cow goddess (right), and appears on the Narmer Palette - an important Egyptian archaeological artifact, dating 31 BC, and containing some of the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found. It is believed to depict the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Bat is depicted with the face of a woman but with cow ears and horns. She was believed to be a sky goddess, whose milk formed the Milky Way. Hathor has similar legends attached to her. 16 9.3 THE EGYPTIAN BULL/RAM DEITIES Clockwise from top right: The Egyptian gods Moloch, Mnevis, Khnum, and Apis THE BULL CULT: Apart from the ancient horned goddesses like Hathor, Egypt had a number of other male horned deities. However, unlike Hathor who was anthropomorphic, these deities were theriocephalic or zoomorphic. In fact, the Bull Cult was famous during the first dynasty, with the ruling Pharaoh being represented by a strong a virile bull. The representation was literal whereby a bull with sacred marks would be identified, offered a life of luxury and upon death, given a tomb burial with complete royal honours. Apis, Buchis, Mnevis were the most popular bull ‘gods’ in this cult. KHNUM: Khnum is also another ancient Egyptian deity, who was considered an aspect of Ra. He was a fertility deity of sorts, as he was deemed responsible for the annual flooding of the Nile and thereby fertilising the plains for cultivation. With the freshly silted soil, he was thought to create human babies (and gods) and place them in the mothers’ wombs, and came to be known as the divine potter. He has a ram’s head with horns and like Hathor, holds a staff and an ankh. MOLOCH: Moloch, derived from the world melech meaning king was an ancient malevolent bull deity, to whom children were apparently sacrificed. Moloch’s worship was strictly forbidden in the Jewish tradition once the religion of Egypt began to change. 17 10. FROM HORNED GODS TO HORNED DEMONS L-R: Azazel, Baphomet and Lucifer with horns From the indigenous religion of Egypt to Judaism and finally to Christianity, the portrayal and perception of horned figures went from the divine to the demonic. The rejection and demonisation of Moloch, and the admittedly cruel practices associated with him may have been the first step towards this change. Like Moloch, everything with horns came to be associated with evil. Take for instance Azazel, a name given to a fallen angel or demon, in the Hebrew Bible. Azazel is often used synonymously with scapegoat, which has probably to do with his depiction as a horned creature. The symbolism of horns was carried forward into Christianity with Lucifer sometimes being depicted with horns in classical sculptures. Further, Satanist and erroneously by extension, Wiccan practices came to be associated with horned creatures like Baphomet. In short, horns became the symbol of the devil. As man deciphered nature and learned to tame it, his awe and reverence toward it lessened. The need to have and appease elemental gods ceased, as modern practices took hold. The advent of Christianity and its gradual influence across the globe changed a lot of religious paradigms, rejecting idol worship across cultures as pagan. The transition of horned creatures as objects of veneration to objects of fear and hatred was a slow but sure one. In contemporary society, horns are firmly thought of as evil and often used by the ever present counterculture as a sign of rebellion. Let us, however, remember that horns and horned creatures were not always what they are today. They were once signs of strength and beauty and fertility and this paper has hopefully served to remind you of the same. 18